范文无忧网项目成本控制
中英文资料外文翻译文献
外文翻译之一
Project Budget Monitor and Control
Author：Yin Guo-li
Nationality：American
Derivation： Management Science and Engineering. Montreal: Mar 20, 2010 .
With the marketing competitiveness growing, it is more and more critical in budget control of each project. This paper discusses that in the construction phase, how can a project manager be successful in budget control. There are many methods discussed in this paper, it reveals that to be successful, the project manager must concern all this methods.
1. INTRODUCTION
The survey shows that most projects encounter cost over-runs (Williams Ackermann, Eden, 2002,pl92). According to Wright (1997)'s research, a good rule of thumb is to add a minimum of 50% to the first estimate of the budget (Gardiner and Stewart, 1998, p251). It indicates that project is very complex and full of challenge. Many unexpected issues will lead the project cost over-runs. Therefore, many technologies and methods are developed for successful monitoring and control to lead the project to success. In this article, we will discuss in the construction phase, how can a project manager to be successful budget control.
2. THE CONCEPT AND THE PURPOSE OF PROJECT CONTROL AND MONITOR
Erel and Raz (2000) state that the project control cycle consists of measuring the status of the project, comparing to the plan, analysis of the deviations, and implementing any appropriate corrective actions. When a project reach the construction phase, monitor and control is critical to deliver the project success. Project monitoring exists to establish the need to take corrective action, whilst there is still time to take action. Through monitoring the activities, the project team can analyze the deviations and decide what to do and actually do it. The purpose of monitor and control is to support the implementation of corrective actions, ensure projects stay on target or get project back on target once it has gone off target。
3. SETTING UP AN EFFICIENT CONTROL SYSTEM
For the purpose of achieving cost target, the manager need to set up an efficient management framework including: reporting structure, assessing progress, and communication system. The employees' responsibility and authority need to be defined in the reporting structure. The formal and informal assessing progress can help getting a general perspective between reality and target. It is significant to help identify what is the risk and should be monitored and controlled. Project success is strongly linked to communication. The efficient communication system benefit for teamwork and facilitate problem solving ( Diallo and Thuillier, 2005 ).
4. COST MONITOR AND CONTROL
4.1 Ranking the priority of monitoring
In construction phase, many activities are carried out based on the original plan. It is need to know what kind of activities or things are most likely to lead the project delay and disruption. Therefore, the first step is ranking the priority of the activities. Because the duration of a project is determined by the total time of activities on critical path, any delay in an activity on the critical path will cause a delay in the completion date for the project (Ackermann Eden, Howick and Williams,2000,p295). Therefore, the activities on critical path should firstly to be monitored and controlled. Secondly, monitoring the activities with no free float remaining, a delay in any activity with no free float will delay some subsequent activity inevitably. These subsequent delays will discomfit the resource schedule significantly. Some resources are unavailable because they are committed elsewhere. Thirdly, monitoring the activities with less than a
specified float, because if an activity has very little float, it might use up the time before control decision is made once such an activities has a variance with the target. Fourthly, managers should monitor high risky activities. High risky activities are most likely to overspend. Fifthly, managers should monitor the activities using critical resource. Some resource is critical because they are very expensive or limited (Cotterell and Hughes, 1995).
4.2Methods of cost control
The main cost of a project includes staff cost, material cost and delay cost. To control these cost, managers should first set up a cost control system to: a) Allocate responsibilities for administration and analysis of financial data b) Ensure all costs are properly allocated against project codes
c) Ensure all costs are genuinely in pursuit of project activities
d) Check that other projects are not using the budget.
Then, managers should monitor and control change to the project budget. It means the following things:
a) Concerned with key factors that cause changes to the budget
b) Controlling actual cost changes as they occur
- Monitor cost performance to detect variances
- Record all appropriate changes accurately in the cost baseline
- Preventing incorrect, unauthorized changes being included in the cost baseline
- Determine positive and negative variances
- Integrated with all other control processes (scope, change, schedule, quality)
As a project is dynamic, sometimes the project managers know the project is going out off target by monitoring, but don't know the best action to take. In this circumstance, net present value (NPV) should be used as an ongoing monitor and control mechanism, because NPV takes account of the time element and discounts future cash flows, it is the result of the time effect on cash
4.3 Change monitor and control
Voropajev (1998) states that dynamic changes of project environment will influence the process of project implementation, the project itself and may cause heightened risk. When carried out some activities, the methods different from that in the original plan must be used to keep the process moving forward
(as experienced under practice). Therefore, changes are inevitable and need to be managed during project life-cycle (Voropajev. 1998,p 16- 17) .An effective change control system should be established to ensure change procedure is clear and unambiguous and easy for employee to request a change. And the following things need to be concerned:
a) Monitoring and forecasting most probable changes Key factors that generate change to ensure good results; make sure that change must be checked by suitable person.
b) Changes should take place once it is approved and be monitored to check whether it worked as expected
c) All changes in project should be recorded in the project documentation (Voropajev, 1998,pl8).
5. CONCLUSION
This article shows the best methods of budget control. First, an efficient control system must be set up. Secondly, It is required to recognize and rank the important factors affecting budget target. Thirdly, manager should combine different control techniques to reach the success of a project.
项目成本减少与控制
作者：Yin Guo-li
国籍：美国
出处：管理科学与工程．2010.03.20
随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大，在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。本文论述了在施工阶段，项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。本文讨论了很多方法。它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法。
1.简介
调查显示，大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问题(Williams Ackermann, Eden, 2002,pl92)。据Wright（1997）的研究，一个好的经验法则就是相比首次成本预算至少会增加50%(Gardiner and Stewart, 1998, p251)。这表明，项目是非常复杂并且充满挑战的。很多意想不到的因素会导致项目成本的增加。因此，许多科学技术和方法被应用于监测和控制成本来促使项目的成功。在这篇文章中，我们将讨论在施工阶段，项目经理如何才能成功控制预算成本。
2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的
Erel and Raz (2000)指出项目控制周期包括测量成本是实际情况，将施工成本的实际值和计划值进行比较，对比较结果进行分析，并采取适当的措施来纠正偏差。项目在施工阶段的监测和控制对于项目的成功是至关重要的。为了采取正确的纠偏措施需要建立项目监测机制，同时这样做也可以有时间来采取措施。通过监测手段，项目团队可以分析偏差产生的原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。监控的目的就是纠偏措施的实施，确保项目控制在计划目标内或者使已经偏离计划的回到目标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系
为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一个高效的管理框架，包括：报告的结构，评估的进展情况以及沟通体系。在报告结构中，雇员的责任和权力应该要清楚地被定义。正式的和非正式的评估可以帮助实际和目标之间大体上保持一致，且这对于确定什么是风险以及哪些需要被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。项目成功与良好的沟通密切相关，一个高效率的沟通体系有利于团队协作并促进问题的解决( Diallo and Thuillier, 2005)。
4.成本费用的检测和控制
4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序
在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计划。它需要清楚什么样的活动或者哪些东西是最有可能导致项目延误和不受控制的。因此，第一步就是要对这些活动进行优先排序。由于项目的工期是由关键路径上的关键工作的总时间决定的，任何关键路径上工作的延迟将导致项目工期的拖延(Ackermann Eden, Howick and Williams,2000,p295)。因此，关键路径上的工作应该首先进行检测和控制。其次，检测没有自由时差浮动的工作，任何没有自由时差工作的延误将导致其后续工作的拖延，这些后续工作的延误将对资源分配安排带来影响，有些资源被分配到特定的工作是不可以变更利用的。第三，检测具有较少浮动时间的工作，因为，如果一个工作具有非常少的浮动时间，那么当它偏离目标的时候很有可能在还没有采取控制措施前就将浮动时间用完了。第四，项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有可能超支。第五，管理者应该检测项目活动中使用的关键资源，有些资源由于是非常昂贵和有限的而至关重要(Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法
一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：
a) 为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员
b) 确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的成本
c) 确保所有成本都是项目进展过程中各项活动的真实支出
d) 检查其它工程项目没有使用此项目预算
然后，项目管理者应该对项目预算进行监督和控制变更。这意味着以下几点： a) 关注可以引起成本变化的主要因素
b) 控制实际成本的变化
--监测成本发生情况来发现它的变化
--在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰当的成本变动
--为防止出现错误，没有经过允许的成本变化也应该体现在成本控制线上
--确定积极地和消极的成本变化
--与其它控制目标（范围、变更、进度、质量）相结合
由于一个工程项目是动态变化的，有时项目经理通过监测知道项目成本正在偏离预算，但是却不知道采取什么措施来控制。在这种情况下，净现值（NPV）能够被用来作为一种持续监控的方法，因为净现值考虑了时间的因素来对未来现金流折现，它是现金流考虑时间价值影响后的结果。
4.3变化的检测和控制
Voropajev (1998)指出，施工环境的动态变化将会影响项目的实施过程、项目本身以及增加项目风险的可能性。当在开展施工活动的时候，不同于原计划的各种方法必须被应用来保持项目向前推进（根据实践经验）。因此，变化是不可避免的，需要在项目的整个生命周期过程中管理和控制变化(Voropajev. 1998,p 16- 17)。为了确保变更程序是明确和毫不含糊的以及方便施工人员提出要求发生改变，应该建立一个有效的变更控制体系。可以从以下几个方面考虑：
a) 为确保良好的结果，应检测和预测最有可能发生变更的主要因素，应该保证变更必须由合适的人员检查
b）一旦被批准，变更应该发生并对此进行监测以检查是否按预期工作
c)项目的所有变更应该被记录在项目文件资料中(Voropajev, 1998,pl8)
5.结论
本文介绍了控制预算的最佳方法。首先，必须建立一个高效率的监管控制体系；其次，它必须包括影响成本预算目标的主要因素并将它按照重要性排序；第三，项目管理者应该结合不同的科学控制方法以达到项目的成功。
外文翻译之二
The Contractor's Role in Building Cost Reduction After
Design
Author：Waddle,Todd W.
Nationality：UK
Derivation：Cost Engineering; Feb2008, Vol. 50 Issue 2, p14-21
It has become evident from recent news articles that inflationary pressures and increased construction activity are causing many building projects to come in well over owner's budgets. This trend has increased dramatically over the past few years, as much of the construction industry has been impacted by an unprecedented increase in the cost of construction. The historical rate of increase in construction cost has been under five percent per year, as reported by the Engineering News Record . Over the last few years, the industry has seen a significant increase from historical escalation rates, up to 10-15 percent per year in many regions of the US. These increases have been caused by a variety of factors, including the following.
• Shortage of steel resulting from rapid growth in China.
• Demand for materials in the US resulting from increased hurricane damage. • Rising oil prices leading to higher manufacturing and transportation cost. • Rising labor cost because of increased construction activity .
To be successful in having over budget projects awarded, the building contractor has had to take a proactive role in working with owners and design
teams to reduce project cost to amounts that owners are able to award. This cost reduction is normally accomplished through the following methods. • value engineering;
• scope reduction;
Value Engineering
Value engineering (VE) has been defined as a systematic method to improve the value of goods and services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio of function to cost. Value can therefore be increased by either improving the function or reducing the cost.
It is a primary tenet of value engineering that quality not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing value improvements . VE is a process originating at General Electric Company (GE) during World War II. Because of shortages of skilled labor, raw materials, and component parts, engineers at GE
looked for acceptable alternates and often found substitutions that resulted in reduced costs and/or product improvement.
GE developed a systematic process that they called value analysis. Over the years the name gradually changed to VE. The basic steps of VE include the following：
• Information gathering: project requirements defined, function analysis. • Alternates: various ways of meeting the requirements and functions.
• Evaluation: assessment of alternates on how well they meet requirements and costs savings.
• Presentation: selection of best alternatives to be presented to client for decisions.
True VE evaluates life cycle costs such as initial cost, maintenance cost, operational cost, life span, time value of money, replacement cost, and frequency of replacement. VE can be undertaken at any stage of the building design process; however, it is most effective in the early stages, since it is less costly to make changes to preliminary documents .
Scope Reduction
Scope reduction involves identifying areas of the project scope of work that can be reduced in quality, quantity, or both in a manner that is acceptable to the owner.
Scope reduction items of work often consist of material or equipment
substitutions that lower the cost of the project, but may not be an equal substitute. An example of quantity scope reduction would be to reduce the guttering system on a pitched roof from the entire roof perimeter to entrances only. A quality scope reduction example would be to provide vinyl composition floor tiles (VCT) in lieu of ceramic floor tiles.
After a project has been determined to be out of budget because of high bids, the project is normally either cancelled, redesigned and re-bid, or negotiations are held with the low bidder to reach an acceptable contract amount. For the building contractor that is selected for negotiations, this is an opportunity to move toward project award and to also build a relationship of trust and openness with the owner and design team that could lead to future projects.
First, the building contractor should meet with the owner and design team to fully understand the owners project requirements, priorities, life cycle considerations, and budget.
Next, the building contractor's role is to use his estimating and construction expertise to analyze various components and systems within the project for alternate solutions. The contractor should also bring in key subcontractors and suppliers who are often able to identify alternate materials and/or systems within their specialties. Each division of work should be examined and evaluated for VE solutions. In past years, this process and service was considered part of the building contractors overhead. However, in today's market, some contractors will negotiate rates and be reimbursed for the time and effort that they spend in this process in the event that the
project is not awarded to them.
The work breakdown structure (WBS) can be a helpful tool to the building contractor in analyzing the various components and systems within a building project. The WBS is a tree-type structure of functional systems used to classify the project on a level-by-level basis . This breakdown structure facilitates the evaluation of each system of the project from the building foundations to the completed sitework.
Questions to Ask or Areas and/to Consider by WBS
This section provides a list of areas for the building contractor to examine and/or questions to ask in the WBS system level format for cost saving
alternatives. Some of these changes can be accomplished
without major re-design cost and incorporated into the construction documents in the form of an addendum. Other changes listed would require extensive re-design and time delays.
SUBSTRUCTURE
—Have alternate types of foundation system been considered?
• wood piles in lieu of precast;
• drilled caissons vs. piles;
• mat foundations in place of piles or caissons.
—Evaluate sand base in place of gravel or stone under slab on grade.
SUPERSTRUCTURE
—Have alternate types of building structures been evaluated?
• structural steel, precast concrete, cast in place concrete, light gauge steel framing or wood framing systems.
—Compare Alternate Stair Systems.
• steel pan stairs vs. precast concrete or cast in place concrete.
EXTERIOR CLOSURE
—Evaluate exterior wall systems.
• Light gauge metal framing in lieu of reinforced concrete masonry units. • Can wall widths or gauges be reduced?
—Compare sheathing systems.
• Fiber sheathings in place of cement boards.
—Review alternate wall insulation systems.
• Batt insulations, rigid insulation materials, loose fill block insulation.
—Consider alternate exterior wall veneers.
• Conventional stucco versus exterior insulation finish system.
• Brick or precast in lieu of stone.
—Evaluate alternate glazing systems.
• Can exterior glazed areas be reduced?
• Storefronts in lieu of curtainwalls if code allows.
• Painted aluminum in lieu of stainless steel or brass framing.
—Review exterior entrances.
• Manual entrance doors in place of automatic entrances.
• Automatic entrances in lieu of revolving doors.
• Cedar entrance doors rather than mahogany.
—Examine exterior railing systems.
• aluminum or cable systems in lieu of glass;
• standard designs in place of custom elements;
ROOFING
—Evaluate the specified roofing with alternative materials.
• Combined metal decking/insulation systems in lieu of separate systems. • Interior batt insulation in place of rigid roof insulation.
• Built-up roofing vs. single ply membranes.
• Fiberglass or concrete tiles in lieu of clay tiles.
• Painted metals in place of copper.
• Can the specified gauge of metal roofing be lowered?
• Eliminate or reduce the guttering system?
• Can skylights be reduced or styles changed?
• Are standard warranties specified?
INTERIOR CONSTRUCTION
—Examine interior wall systems.
• Can light gauge metal-framed walls be used in lieu of concrete masonry units?
• Can wall thicknesses or gauges be reduced?
• Are drywall systems being used in lieu of plaster? Examine interior doors and hardware.
• Are the specified doors standard sizes or custom?
• Have alternate wood door species been considered?
• Have alternate hardware styles or manufacturers been compared?
• Can manual doors be used in lieu of automatic?
• Are the doors pre-machined for hardware installation?
• Compare pre-finishing doors with finishing on-site.
—Review interior specialties.
• Have alternate types of toilet partitions been considered?
• Prefinished metals vs. plastic laminates.
• Can vinyl corner guards be used rather than metal?
• Metal lockers vs. wood.
• Have special partitions been evaluated?
• Plastic veneers in lieu of wood.
• Can the sound rating be reduced?
• Defer installation?
• Has the access flooring system been evaluated?
• Standard floor finishes rather than custom?
INTERIOR FINISHES
—Evaluate interior wall finishes.
• Painted wall finishes in lieu of wallcovering.
• Epoxy coatings in place of tile finishes.
• FRP instead of stainless steel.
• Are textured drywall systems being used rather than plaster?
—Examine interior floor finishes.
• Resilient flooring vs. ceramic or wood.
• Ceramic flooring in lieu of stone.
• Tile or stone in place of terrazzo.
• Alternate carpet manufacturers.
—Review alternate ceiling finishes.
• Standard ceiling vs. custom.
• Fiber ceiling vs. metal.
CONVEYING SYSTEMS
—Review specified elevators and escalators.
• Have alternate manufacturers been considered?
• Are standard interior elevator cab finishes specified or custom?
• Can glass walls be eliminated?
• Are standard warranties specified?
SITE PREPARATION
• Has a site work analysis been performed to balance cuts and fills.
SITE IMPROVEMENTS
• Can paved areas be reduced or more economical paving materials used? • Has resurfacing existing parking areas been considered rather than new parking construction?
• Have alternate types of enclosure walls been considered?
• Have landscaping alternatives or substitutions been considered?
• Seeding in place of sodding.
• Reduce or change tree and plant materials.
• Use existing trees and other existing landscaping.
SITE CIVIL/MECHANICAL UTILITIES
• Have alternate utility piping materials been evaluated?
• Can existing site utilities be abandoned rather than removed?
SITE ELECTRICAL UTILITIES
• Have alternate exterior lighting packages been compared?
• Have alternate utility piping materials been evaluated?
CONTRACTOR OVERHEAD AND PROFIT
• Can phasing be reduced to shorten the project duration?
• Can the start of the project be timed to avoid cost impact of winter conditions? • For high-rise projects; have crane and hoisting options been compared? • Can the Owner include the Builders Risk policy?.
Breaking down and analyzing the components of a building project through the work breakdown structure can aid in reduction summaries also reveal that the mechanical, electrical and plumbing(MEP) systems typically offer the greatest opportunity for cost savings due to their total significance to a project. The MEP systems normally make up between 30 to 50 percent of a building project's cost.The owners of the illustrated projects accepted cost reducing changes ranging from 6 to 14 percent of the original low bids. These reductions allowed them to meet their particular budgets and have their projects constructed by incorporating the changes into addendums. Some projects may be so far over budget that substantial structural and/or building redesigns are unavoidable. However, building contractors can play a major role in bringing projects into budget—using their past experience along with their subcontractor and supplier networks to develop cost reduction alternatives that may not have been previously considered by owners and/or design teams.
设计阶段后承包商在降低施工成本方面所扮演的角色
作者：Waddle,Todd W.
国籍：英国
出处：营销的智慧与计划 2008.11.05，第14-21页
从最近的新闻报道中可以明显的看出，通货膨胀的压力和建筑产业的不断发展使很多工程项目超出了业主的预算。在过去几年中这一趋势急剧增加，许多建筑行业都受到成本增加的冲击。正如Engineering News Record所报道的，以前工程成本每年的增长率在5%以下。在过去的几年中，美国很多地区的建筑行业的成本的增长率已经从历史的水平迅速增加到每年10%-15%。这种增加受到很多因素的影响，包括：
•中国的快速发展导致钢材的供应不足。
•飓风所造成的危害导致美国材料需求的增长。
•石油价格的上涨导致很高的生产和运输成本。
•建筑行业的发展导致劳动力成本的上涨。
为了成功地使超过预算的项目获得业主的奖励，承包商必须积极的与业主和设计单位合作沟通来降低项目成本以达到业主可以奖励的范围。实现成本的降低通常可以采用以下方法：
•价值工程
•缩小项目成本支出的范围
价值工程
价值工程（VE）被定义为一种提高商品和服务的价值并降低成本的系统的方
法。也就是功能比上成本。价值增加不仅可以通过提高功能还可以通过降低生产成本来实现。
价值工程的一个主要宗旨是，在追求价值提高的过程中不降低产品的质量。VE起源于二战期间美国通用电气公司。由于缺乏有技术的劳动力、原材料和零部件，通用公司的工程师不断变换探索，发现了降低成本或者提高产品质量的方法。
通用公司开发了一种称为价值分析的过程体系。在过去的几年里，这个名字已经逐渐改变成为VE。VE的基本步骤包括以下几个方面：
•信息收集：定义项目的需求、进行功能分析。
•方法：各种可以满足要求和功能的方法。
•评估：评估各种方法对于满足需求和降低成本的程度。
•表述：选择最好的方法提供给客户以帮助他们做决定。
VE评估的生命周期包括初始成本、维修成本、运营成本、产品的寿命、货币时间价值、重置成本以及替换的频率。VE可以应用于建筑设计的任何阶段，然而，在早期最为有效，因为更改初步设计文件的花费更少。
缩小项目成本支出的范围
缩小支出范围包括在业主可接受基础上降低质量水平、减少数量或者两者同时减少。
缩小支出范围往往在于替换材料或设备以降低项目成本，但是并不意味着是平等替换。比如说减少整个屋顶外围斜屋顶上的排水系统就是一个减少数量的例子；用乙烯组成的瓷砖（VCT）替代普通的瓷砖就是为了说明降低质量水平来达到缩小范围的目的。
当投标报价超过项目预算时候，通常情况下该项目要么被取消，重新设计和招标，或者让业主与低价投标者进行协商达成双方都可接受的合同价。对于被选中参加协商谈判的承包商来说，这是一个获得项目的机会，同时也是与业主和设计单位建立信任、公开化关系的机会。
首先，承包商应该与业主和设计单位洽谈，充分了解业主对项目的要求，他们考虑的首要因素、项目的生命周期和预算。
其次，承包商的角色就是要利用他们在估算和施工方面的专业知识来分析项目内各组成成分和体系，从而找到方案。承包商也应该让主要的分包商和供应商参与进来，他们往往可以在自己专业的领域范围内确定可替代的材料和体系。项目工作的每个决定应该通过价值工程方法的检验和评估。在过去几年中，这个过程和服务是承包商增加支出的一部分。然而，在当今的市场上，一些承包商会通过价格谈判来补偿没有中标时他们所花费的时间和精力。
对承包商来说，工作分解结构图在分析建筑工程各个部分和系统中是一种非
常有用的工具。WBS是一种将项目分为最基本组成成分的树状结构图。这种分解结构图对项目从地基基础到全部完工的各个部分的费用估算带来很大的便利。
通过WBS图来发现问题和/或者找出需要考虑的地方
这个部分向承包商提供了需要审查和/或提出问题的地方，这是建立在WBS图基础上来降低施工成本。这些变化中有些可以不用增加设计变更的成本来实现，而是通过附录的形式并入建设合同中。在所列的这些范围中有些需要大量的设计变更并导致工期延误。
地基基础
----考虑能否由其它类型的基础来替代？
•用木桩来替代预制桩
•采用箱形基础还是桩基础
•用基础垫层来取代桩基础或者箱形基础
----评估在地平面下是否可以用沙来替代砾石或者石块
上部结构
----可替代的建筑结构类型是否已经被考虑？
•结构钢，预制混凝土，现浇混凝土铸造，轻钢框架或木框架系统
----比较不同形式的楼梯
•钢结构楼梯、预制装配式楼梯或者现浇式钢筋混凝土楼梯
外墙幕墙
----评价外墙结构
•用轻金属框架来替代钢筋混凝土砌块
•墙的宽度或者尺寸能否减少？
----比较建筑外围护结构
•用纤维来替代水泥板
----比较墙体不同的隔热构造
•棉质保温材料，硬质保温材料，松散填充的保温砌块
----考虑不同的外墙装饰类型
•比较传统的粉灰泥和外墙保温涂层
•用砖或者预制混凝土来替代石材
----比较不同的玻璃装配方式
•能否减少外墙玻璃安装的区域
•在合理范围内用橱窗来替代幕墙
•涂漆的铝制品来替代不锈钢或者黄铜材料的框架结构
----外部的入口
•用手动的进入系统来替代自动的入门系统
•用自动的入门系统来替代旋转门
•用雪松质地的大门而不是红木大门
----比较不同的外部栏杆
•铝制材料或者缆索来替代玻璃栏杆
•使用标准设计来替代习惯性的使用元素
屋面
----评估不同材料的屋顶
•混合金属的装饰/保温系统替代单一金属系统
•弹性的屋面保温系统来替代刚性屋面保温系统
•比较内置式屋面和单一厚度的模板
•用玻璃纤维或者混凝土砖来替代粘土砖
•用有色金属来替代铜
•是否可以减少特定规格金属屋面的尺寸
•排除或者减少排水系统？
•天窗是否可以减少或者变换样式
•标准是否是确定唯一的？
室内建造
----审查内墙系统
•轻金属的框架墙能否替代混凝土砌块
•墙的厚度或者尺寸能否减少
•能否用干燥墙体的系统来替代石膏？检查室内的门和硬件
•使用标准尺寸的门还是习惯尺寸的？
•有没有考虑使用木质门
•有没有对硬件的制造商做了比较
•能否用手动的门来替代自动门
•门能否事先安装好硬件
•比较预制精轧门和现场安装
----审查室内的特定部分
•是否已经考虑了厕所分割的不同类型
•比较预制金属和塑料薄层
•可以用乙烯基而不是金属
•比较金属储物柜和木质储物柜
• 特殊的部分是否已经被评估
• 用塑料贴面来替代木质的
• 能否可以降低声音频率
• 是否需要推迟安装
•是否已经评估了进入的地面系统
•使用标准底面还是习惯性的
室内装修
----评估内墙装饰面
•用彩绘墙壁饰面来替代墙纸
•用环氧树脂涂料来替代瓷砖饰面
•用玻璃钢来替代不锈钢
•干燥墙体系统是否可以替代石膏
----比较室内地板的不同饰面
•比较有弹性的装饰面、瓷砖或者木地板
•用瓷砖来替代石材
•用瓷砖或者石材来替代水磨石地板
•比较不同的地毯制造商
----比较不同天花板装饰
•比较标准的天花板与自定义天花板
•比较纤维材质的天花板与金属材质的
输送系统
----审查指定的电梯和自动扶梯
•是否已经比较不同的制造商？
•室内电梯室采用指定的涂料还是自定义的？
•玻璃幕墙是否需要被淘汰？
•标准是否是确定唯一的？
现场准备
•是否已经分析现场的工作情况，从而通过削减或者增加来平衡场地改进 •能否减少需要铺砌的区域或者使用更加经济的铺路材料？
•是否考虑了重新铺砌原有的停车区域而不是新建通区？
•是否考虑了不同类型的围墙？
•是否考虑了美化环境的不同方式及其替代品
•用播种来替代植入草坪
•减少或者改变树木或者植物的种类
•利用现有的树木和绿化
现场工程设施/公共设施基础
•是否考虑了各种可被利用的公共基础设施？
•能否放弃使用已存在现场的公共基础设施而不是把它移走？
施工现场的电力设施
•是否考虑了不同的外部照明系统
•是否考虑了各种可被利用的公共基础设施？
承包商的日常管理费用和利润
•是否可以逐步地缩短工期？
•能否计算项目的开工时间以避免受到冬季气候条件的影响，从而来降低成本？ •对于高层项目，是否已经对不同的起重机和升降机做了比较？
•建筑业的政策风险是否需要业主来分担
通过工作分解结构图来分解和分析项目的各个组成部分，不仅减少了项目的总成本，而且还可以利用机械、电气和管道（MEP）系统来增加降低成本费用的机会，因为这个系统对一个项目而言是非常重要的。MEP系统通常占了建筑项目成本的30%--50%。项目的业主接受项目成本变化的范围是原来最低投标价的6%到14%。这些成本的降低不仅满足了他们的成本预算，而且通过将变更添加到合同附件中来实现项目的顺利建设。有些重大结构和/或者重新设计导致大大超过项目预算是不可避免的。然而，承包商可以在控制过程中扮演重要角色---使用他们过去的建设经验以及他们分包商和供应商的网络系统来降低成本费用，这些可能是业主和/或者设计团队在之前所没有考虑到的。